Huey P. Newton Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Huey P. Newton - Essay Example In 1971, he announced that the Black Panther Party had stopped to use violent methods of fight and switched onto tackling the burning social issues of America’s black community (education, employment, shelter, food and water, medical care, and others). Newton was often accused of violent crimes – mostly murders, so in 1971 he had to run away to Cuba so that to avoid the lifelong imprisonment. However even from Cuba he continued to lead the Black Panthers Party, and living in this country made him even surer that socialism was an ideal political system. In 1974, on return from Cuba, Newton went to jail where he was studying philosophy and history, and in 1980 he obtained a PhD having written a thesis about the Black Panthers. In 1989, Newton was killed by a drug-dealer Tyron Robinson in Oakland. The reasons for his murder are not obvious – some think that the Black Panthers took revenge on their leader who â€Å"betrayed† them; others claim that the reasons for the murder of Huey were connected with drugs (cocaine). The regular fights between the white policemen and the Afro-American citizens in the 1960s resulted in emergence of one of the most extremists organizations in American history - Black Panther Party. One of the founders of the party was Huey P. Newton. Being an active opponent of the black people discrimination, he demanded from the write government to treat the Afro-American citizens with respect and care: eliminate unemployment, provide them with medical insurance, etc. In his actions, Newton was guided by the philosophy and political goals of Karl Marx and Mao Zedong – just as these two ideologists, he only wished for all people of the USA to be happy. Consequently, the main enemies of the â€Å"Panthers† were empowered white racists who were proclaiming the ideas of slavery and genocide of the Afro-American people. While the members of the organizations could turn into real monsters performing acts of

Wegener's Granulomatosis Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Wegener's Granulomatosis - Research Paper Example Wegener’s granulomatis has no known cause and although it affects people at any age, it usually affects the young or adults at their middle age. Fatigue, loss of weight, fever, shortness of breath, bloody sputum, joint pain, and inflammation in the sinuses are the common symptoms of Wegener’s granulomatosis. Several literatures are reviewed in this paper. Among patients with Wegener granulomatosis, narrowing of the lumen with some evidence of vasculitis resulted from thickened or fibrotic laryngeal wall. In some cases, granulation tissue replaces the mucosal lining of the larynx. Hence, laryngoscopy must be carefully performed to avoid bleeding from granulomas and dislodgement of ulcerations tissue among patients whom suspected diagnosis of Wegener granulomatosis is noted. Wegener’s granulomatosis is a fatal disease when it is not diagnosed and treated properly since it presents in various forms and deceives as manifestations of other diseases. Annotated Bibliogr aphy 1. Tanna, et al., (2011) Otolaryngologic Manifestations of Wegener Granulomatosis (WG) This article discusses that it is common to have otolaryngologic manifestation among patients with Wegener granulomatosis, and usually presents as nasal, sinus, ear, or tracheal manifestations in about 70 percent. The symptoms of otolaryngologic manifestations are oftentimes misdiagnosed as infectious or allergic in etiology and generally precede the pulmonary or renal involvement. On the other hand, up to 80 percent of nose and paranasal sinuses are involved in WG and in its early stage, are often misdiagnosed as chronic rhinitis or sinusitis. Mucosal edema with obstruction, rhinorrhea, ulceration, crusting, and epistaxis are common nasal signs and symptoms observed in WG. It is mentioned in this article that necrotizing granulomatous inflammation of upper and lower airways, small arteries and veins systemic vasculitis, and focal granulomatous are known as the classical triad of full  œ blown granulomatosis. However, it is noted that it does necessarily involve all three areas and organ systems. Hence, both could be limited and systemic variations may include in the head and neck alone; head and neck and pulmonary; and head, neck, pulmonary and renal, which can be indolent or rapid in its clinical course. Its constitutional signs and symptoms, which are common but dominate rarely the clinical picture, include fever, loss of weight, and fatigue. 2. Goritsas, C., Paissios, N., Trigidou, R., and Delladetsima, J. (2010). Hepatic Involvement in Wegener’s Granulomatosis: A Case Report. This paper talks about the hepatic involvement in a patient diagnosed to have Wegener’s Granulomatosis. This is a case report of a 58 year old man, Caucasian Greek presenting with dry cough, fever, bilateral alveolar infiltrates, and acute hepatitis. The patient was diagnosed with Wegener’s granulomatosis after a lung biopsy, and its diagnosis was supported by anti-p roteinase-3 anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies present. Liver biopsy indicated a â€Å"presence of mild non-specific lobular hepatitis and periodic acid-Schiff positive Lafora-like inclusions in a large number of his liver cells.† Patient had remissions of chest x-ray findings and liver function test after being treated with prednisone and cyclophosphamide. The authors of this paper concluded that there is an etiological link between hepatitis and

Studying The Functions Of The Bank Of England Finance Essay

Studying The Functions Of The Bank Of England Finance Essay Introduction The Bank of England also known as the central Bank of England. In 1964 it started as the joint stock company, and in return for a large loan to the government was put in privileged position which enabled it to be a largest private bank. It was then authorized to hold the large gold reserves of the banking system of UK. In 1844 note issuing powers were terminated other than via bank, which become as the monopoly supplier. Before coming as the bank of England Act 1946, it was under the control of the treasury. It is managed by the Court of Directors, headed by the governor, who is appointed by the crown. Since 1844, the balance sheet of the bank was divided into two halves, namely as: Issue Department (concerned with the notes issuance). Banking Department (concerned with other banking). Functions of Bank of England Bank of England Act in 1946 defines the constitutional relationship between bank and the government as follows: The treasury of the bank of England can give the instruction to the bank time by time as, after constitution with the governor of the bank, they think necessary in the public interest. The Act makes no specific reference to the banks responsibilities and duties because they were considered to be well established by the customs and practices. Overall, the Bank of England performs the following: BoE is responsible for the issuance of notes and coins, BoE acts as banker to the central government, BoE acts as banker in the banking sector, BoE manages the Exchange Equalization Account, BoE is conscientious for the precise timing of interest rate changes, BoE as well supervises the banking sector. As per the Governor of the Bank of England, Mr. George in 1996, three major purposes are: Maintaining the honor and value of currency; Maintaining the stability of financial system, both internal and external, Ensuring the effectiveness of the UKs financial services. Role of Bank of England in oversight of Core UK Payment Systems Introduction Basically, Payment system is playing a major role in the development of the economic and financial infrastructure. One of key functions of the UK payment system is to allow transactions to be completed securely and well in time, makes a good involvement to overall financial development. It is essential to be considering that payment systems can also involve risks for members, and can be a gateway for the transmission of disorder from economy or financial system to another. Therefore central bank has always taking steps to develop and operate the Payment system to control this systemic risk. The Banks lapse of payment systems is a major part of its responsibilities for Financial and monetary solidity. The basic function, the Banks lapse work is to identify risks posed by the defining, developing and operate of payment systems and to take necessary steps to control them. A payment system is a system that allows its users to transfer money, it varies from country to country and location to location. In this modern era, in most developed countries, monetary system is regarded as cash ie notes and coins issued by the central bank and can be claims against credit institutions in the form of deposits. Payment system is a safe way to complete a transaction safely and well in time. Companies can use them when they want to buy or sell goods and services and individuals depend on them to receive their wages and for purchases; and Government depends on them to receive taxes and other benefits. Through a payment system a customer can make payment to the customer of other banks. These interconnections mean that, that a customer who hold the money with a bank can focus on their balances, cost and quality of the services and others like credit standings with their banks. The volume of the UK payments system has been considerably increased from the last few years. As for as the payment system concern for the efficiency and effectiveness of the UKs financial sector both domestically, for the stabilization the UK economy, and internationally, to invest in the UK business and financial markets. Working with financial market participants, the Bank plays a vital role to develop and improve the UK payment system so that the investors can enjoy the benefits. The Bank seeks to support market-led development but take a more active part in catalyzing market initiatives the operational role. Bank of England oversight Role for payments That is the major responsibility of the bank to oversight the payment system and as well the stability of the financial system. As the values of payment systems have increased, but at the same time theres an increase in the risk management have become an important issue. The Banks oversight role relates to its operational role as the provider of the central bank money to some of the payment systems and as final provider of liquidity to the banking system and to the stability of the economy more widely. The Bank: The bank of England is entirely responsible for the settlement of CHAPS sterling and CHAPS Euro. The bank of England is responsible to provide the intra day liquidity of CHAPS Sterling and CHAPS Euro by way of reserves against their securities. The main function of the bank of England is to oversee the payment system and to ensure that sufficient weight has given to risk reduction and management and to view their development and operation. However, the BoE taking an interest in promoting payment systems, proper lapse of the competitive upbringing for systems, their members and their users is a subject for the competition authorities. b) Major Developments in UK Payment System in 2008 In the year 2008 theres many changes in the UK payment system because in this year  £200 trillion were passed. The UK Payment system development and performance can be assessed by the systematic payment Core Principles. Through these core principles in 2008 theres main payment system development in UK. CLC and SWIFT are two international infrastructures in the faster payment services and development. To assess the performance and flexibility of the payment system Core principles were developed. These differentiate between the systems and the risk related to their operations and as well the basic tools developed by the bank to avoid these risks. For this purpose bank has developed Oversight Risk Framework. In the year 2008, most important risks to the systems relate to the settlement risks in the event that a member becomes bankrupt, and as well to the operational risks of failure of a system or its supporting network. Overall, the most significant risks identified by the support relate to the main wholesale payment systems. This reflects the blow of Out ages of these systems for economic and financial activity in the United Kingdom. CHAPS One of the most important Payment System in UK is known as CHAPS that provides real time gross settlement of transfers between members which eliminates credit risk. Since, the CHAPS Euro closed in 2008; it is now consist of CHAPS Sterling. The relationship between the Bank and CHAPS Clearing Company is governed by the Memorundam thats known as Memorundam of Understanding. In the year 2008, daily value of CHAPS Sterling was around  £280 billion, thats make it largest UK Payment system. CHPAS played a vital role in distributing the liquidity and mitigation of risks within CHAPS and its real time gross settlement infrastructure in UK financial system During 2008, CHAPS volume fell while values remained constant. There are two reasons for the reduction in volume: Down turn in economic activity may caused fewer CHAPS payments to be made, such as those associated with the housing transaction. Smaller payments could be migrating to the faster payment services which launched in May 2008. There were more signs that volume falling more rapidly in the second half of 2008. In this real time world the largest gross settlement system is the CHAPS sterling which is as well used by the banks to move money around the fiscal system through the following ways: Payments from one Business to other Business. Payment made through the Solicitor for the purchase of house to other party or bank By the individuals who are selling the high value items. Such as car which require guaranteed payments. CREST CREST is as well one of the best Payment System that provides a payment settlement service for gold, shares, and money market technique in both sterling. CREST supervised by the Financial Service Authority (FSA), and the BoE responsible for its oversight. It is a totally owned firm of Euro clear SA/NV and is an RTGS system. As stated in 2009 BoE report, the average daily value of transactions in the sterling element of the system was  £478 billion per day in 2008, and its daily volume reached 211,559. Three types of payments can be made through CREST: Real-time gross settlement in central bank money in sterling. RTGS in central bank money in euro A mutual net settlement arrangement for transactions in US dollars. Bacs As in the change in the technology it changes all the ways of living and work styles, in the same way it changes the payments methods. So, people are choosing automated methods of payment as compare to paper based like cheques and drafts. In 2008 a record of 4.8 billion automated payments in UK has been noted. 92 % of automated payments are bulk transactions generated by the small and large business organisations and are: Direct debits mainly to pay utility bills, life and general insurance premiums and various subscriptions; Direct credits, used for salary payments, pensions, annuities and child benefit. The remaining 8% is made up of inter-bank telephone and online banking payments and standing order payments. Standing Orders Basically, a standing order is an instruction an account holder give to bank or building society to make payments, usually on a regular basis, to a UK bank or building society account. Any person or company with a current account at a bank or building society in the UK can set up a standing order. Your bank or building society will, on the day specified, debit your account and transfer the money to the bank or building society account of the recipient. The money will be transferred either through The Bacs system or increasingly from June 2008 through. The Faster Payments Service.   If it goes via Bacs it will arrive with the recipient within three working days, e.g. for a standing order initiated on a Monday, the earliest it could arrive would be the Wednesday. However, standing orders processed via Faster Payments will be processed on the same day. Internet and Phone In the last few years theres a huge increase in the internet and phone banking that rise the automated payment. The 22.5 million customer are registered with online facility and more than half using internet for making payments, and 40% people from other half (12.3 million) people using telephone banking to make payments. Internet and phone banking transactions are processed as Faster Payments or as one-off Credit using the same three day Bacs system and so followed the three day timescales developed for bulk payments (Direct Debits and Direct Credits). Cheques Cheques are the written orders by the account holders instructing their banks to pay the specified amount to the named person. Cheques are not legal tenders but they are legal documents and their use is governed by the Bills of Exchange Act 1982, and the cheques Act 1957 and 1992. Bankers drafts Bankers drafts are cheques drawn directly on the account of a bank rather than the account of a customer. They provide added assurance as the bankers drafts are unlikely to be returned unpaid due to lack of funds. However, it is important to note that they do not provide a guarantee against fraudulent use. For example, they may be lost or stolen and then used fraudulently. Daily Averages in 2008 Volumes, value and payment types (daily average) Payment Systems Volumes Values ( £ millions) Important Payment Types Substitute CHAPS 136196 283745 1. Settlement in Financial Market Settlement. 2. CLS pay ins and pay outs. 3. House Purchases 1. CHAPS sterling bypass mode 2. Manual procedure for making small number of Bank Transmission. Bacs 22266734 15537 1. Salary and Benefit Payments. 2. Bill payment by direct debit. 3. Telephone and internet banking. 1. Perhaps minimum scope for switching to other instruments in the short term e.g. Cheques, Cash. Faster Payment Services 939866 310 1. Telephone and internet banking. 2. Single immediate payment. 3. Forward dated payments. 4. Standing order payments. 1. Bacs 2. Cash 3. Card Network. Visa ( Credit and Debit Card) 14997260 836 1. Payments for goods and services by consumers and business. 1. Cheques 2. Other Networks 3. Cash Master Cards(Credit and Debit Cards) 10742466 593 1. Payments for goods and services by consumers and business. 1. Cheques 2. Other Networks 3. Cash Link 7797260 306 1. Withdrawal of cash using an ATM not operated by customer own bank. 1. Own bank ATM 2. Other cash withdrawal channels CREST 211559 477512 1. Settlement in respect of cash margin payments. 2. Payments for commodity deliveries. 3. Cash settlement If disruption does not prevent calculation of settlement obligation, contingency payments, procedure may be invoked. D). Core Principles The Bank has adopted some principles, among of these principles few provided a basis for the Banks non statutory oversight up to now and the few other principles related to the UK Payment system. All these principles were adopted by the bank for consultation during 28th September and 30th October. These principles are: Principle 1 The Payment System must have well legal basis under the relevant jurisdictions. The Bank of England notes in 2009 that this is one of the well suited principle for CHAPS as well in 2003 International Monetary Fund observes thats the best principle for CHAPS. In a financial report by International Monetary Fund it is also noted that Bank of England and Wales govern the CHAPS rules, and the Courts of England and Wales also exercise exclusive jurisdiction over any disputes in connection with these rules. The system designed under the rules of Financial Market Regulation in 1999 that was implement the European Union settlement and was finally implemented in United Kingdom. Principle 2 The systems rules and procedures should enable participants to have a clear understanding of the systems impact on each of the financial risks they incur through participation in it. As per the Bank of England report in 2009, CHAPS observes this principle. In 2003 International Monetary Fund draw a conclusion that CHAPS rule set out high level rights and duties of the members, membership criteria and operational criteria. The report issued by Bank of England in 2009 self assessment mentions a Memorandum of Understanding that sets out the rights and responsibilities of the Bank of England as operator and settlement agent of CHAPS; CHAPCo, as the member of the system and the payment organization. CHAPS rule contain the detail procedures and operational manuals that cover all the aspects of the payment system. Principle 3 The system should have clearly defined procedures for the management of credit risks and liquidity risks, which specify the respective responsibilities of the system operator and the participants and which provide appropriate incentives to manage and contain those risks. In 2009 Bank of England declares that CHAPS observes this principle. In 2007 report CHAPS declares as RTGS system, settlement process does not involve credit risk as is the case in deferred settlement system. It adds that domestic payments are both irrecoverable and finally at the point where relevant members settlement account is debited. If a paying bank has insufficient funds available on its settlement account with the Bank of England, CHAPS payments cannot be made, and a liquidity crunch in the system could result in a gridlock. The BoE nevertheless notes that CHAPS members do not experience liquidity management difficulties in meeting CLS pay-in deadlines. Principle 4 The system should provide prompt final settlement on the day of value, preferably during the day and at a minimum at the end of the day. (Systems should seek to exceed the minima included in this Core Principle.) In 2009 Bank of England self assessment that CHAPS operates on RTGS basis, minimizing the credit risk and thus observes this principle. In 2003 a report by International Monetary Fund assessment also assessed CHAPS as observing this principle. Principle 5 A system in which multilateral netting takes place should, at a minimum, be capable of ensuring the timely completion of daily settlements in the event of an inability to settle by the participant with the largest single settlement obligation. (Systems should seek to exceed the minima included in this Core Principle.) This principle is not applicable to CHAPS, according to both the IMF 2003 and BoE 2009 reports, since it is a RTGS system. Principle 6 The system should ensure a high degree of security and operational reliability and should have contingency arrangements for timely completion of daily processing. According to Bank of England and International Monetary Fund assessment, CHAPS observe this principle because CHAPS security architecture was founded on the range of policies and procedures governing the security demanded by the Bank of England, SWIFT and as well for the CHAPS members. In 2009 it was declared by BoE that CHAPS security controls and measures effective, and the business continuity, recovery procedures extensive. The BoE encourages the CHAPCo and its members to continue the system arrangements, communication among the members and to improve the operational arrangements to tide over a crisis. Principle 7 The system should provide a means of making payments which is practical for its users and efficient for the economy. According to both, BoE report in 2009 and IMF report in 2003 assessment, CHAPS observes this principle. As Per the 2003 IMF report, the CHAPS security architecture was founded on a range of policies and procedures manuals governing the levels of security demanded of the system operator (the BoE), (SWIFT) and the CHAPS members. The BoE, in its 2009 report, also finds the CHAPS security controls and measures effective, and the business continuity and recovery procedures extensive. The report mentions the Tripartite Resilience Benchmarking Project (TRBP) that underscores the high quality of the system. Principle 8 The system should have objective and publicly disclosed criteria for participation, which permit fair and open access. In 2003 IMF indicate in a report that CHAPS complies with this principle and as per BoE assessment in payment system report that in the country notes CHAPS only broadly observe this principle. This lower rating was assigned by the BoE primarily because of the fee charged for new membership is  £70,000 which BoE deems as inappropriate. Principle 9 The systems governance arrangements should be effective, accountable and transparent. In 2009 BoE and in 2003 IMF assessment indicates that CHAPS observe this principle. As per BoE, CHAPCo has clear governance structure with board having ultimate responsibilities for the management of the system. Further in 2007 the payment council introduced new governance arrangement for UK payment system. Under this CHAPCo is contractually bound to follow the directions of council on issue like integrity and innovation. Principle 10 The central bank should define clearly its payment system objectives and should disclose publicly its role and major policies with respect to systemically important payment systems. In 2003 in IMF report, BoE observe this principle. As noted by the IMF, the BoE published a paper on Oversight of Payment Systems in November 2000, explaining its objectives in regard to the oversight of UK payment systems. BoE had not yet published any follow-up/annual account of its oversight activities. However, in the June 2002 Financial Stability Review (FSR), a useful box was included to give some more detail of BoE oversight. In 2005 report, the BoE states that payment systems in the UK are not subject to statutory oversight, but notes that in its 2005 report, the BoE states that in order to ensure financial stability, the BoE especially focuses on the reliable functioning of systemically important payment systems in the country. Principle 11 The central bank should ensure that the systems it operates comply with the Core Principles. According to the 2003 FSAP conducted by the IMF, the BoE observes this principle. The IMF adds that the BoE had, together with CHAPCo and CRESTCo, (company operating the UK securities settlement system CREST and the settlement system for money market instruments, now merged with Euro clear, the European Securities Settlement Agency) developed the RTGS Central System, which it operates and provides to these companies as well as to other settlement systems with net end-of-day settlement. Principle 12 The central bank should oversee compliance with the Core Principles by systems it does not operate and it should have the ability to carry out this oversight. According to the 2003 FSAP conducted by the IMF, the BoE observes this principle. As observed by the IMF, the BoE formalized its oversight of UK payment systems with the creation of an Oversight Team in the Market Infrastructure Division with express responsibility for the oversight of payments systems. The BoE also assesses the key UK systems against the core principles. Principle 13 The central bank, in promoting payment system safety and efficiency through the Core Principles, should cooperate with other central banks and with any other relevant domestic or foreign authorities. According to the 2003 FSAP conducted by the IMF, the BoE observes this principle. The IMF notes that the BoE has close and frequent contact with its European and Group of Ten (G10) counterparts, both through formal mechanisms in particular G10, European System of Central Banks (ESCB), and EU committees and ad hoc contacts. The BoE also has close contacts with other U.K. authorities, especially through the Tripartite Standing Committee in which senior representatives of the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the Governor of the BoE and the Chairman of the FSA meet monthly to discuss financial stability; and the U.K. Competition Authorities. The BoE has also signed the Memorandum of Understanding between Payment Systems Overseers and Banking Supervisors in Stage Three of Economic and Monetary Union aimed at promoting cooperation and information sharing between EU payment systems and banking supervisors in relation to large-value interbank transfer systems, in order to ensure the soundness and stability of financial systems and their participating credit institutions. As the BoE website adds, the BoE collaborates with domestic (FSA) and international regulators to provide collective oversight of systems such as Euro clear, Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (SWIFT), LCH. Responsibilities of the central bank in applying the Core Principles The central Bank should consider the following: The central bank should define the clear objectives of the payment system and as well should relate its publicity role with respect to the importance of payment system. The Central Bank should ensure that the all system operates in accordance with the Core Principles. The central bank should supervise acquiescence with the Core Principles by the systems it does not operate and it should have the ability to carry out this oversight. The central Bank should cooperate with the other central banks of the domestic and foreign for the safety and efficiency of the Payment System through the Core Principles. The Bank of England (BoE) asserts that as the overseer of the payment systems in the United Kingdom (U.K.), it prioritizes its oversight activities in accordance with the risks posed by a system to the overall financial stability. Therefore, it focuses its major attention on the high value payment systems in the country that include CHAPS, BACS, and CREST. A 2009 report of the BoE titled Payment Systems Oversight Report 2008, which is a self-assessment of the UKs payment systems notes that the main systems operate, to a great degree, in accordance with international standards. The report also states that CHAPS, which is defined as a system with systemic significance, observes eight of the nine core principles.

Self-Esteem Essay -- Self Image Self-Perception Theory Essays

As people’s outcomes in life depend heavily on how others perceive and evaluate them, they are motivated to convey certain impressions of themselves to others and to refrain from conveying other, undesired impressions. Thus, no matter what else they may be doing, people typically monitor and control their impressions, i.e. a process known as: self-presentation. A great deal of human behaviour is, in part, determined or constrained by people’s concerns with others’ impressions and evaluations of them. Because all human beings are different from one another, the thought process used which results in the self-presentation of a person will also differ from person to person. In this case the potential factor effecting the self-presentation of an individual is that of the self-esteem of the individual. Self–esteem being: â€Å" An affective component of the self, consisting of a persons’ positive and negative self-evaluations.† (Brehm, 1999). Although most people have high self-esteem, there are various ways in which self-esteem can be measured; for example when someone is referring to a persons condition at a specific moment in time it is referred to as a â€Å"state†. If the condition is something which is an average over a period of time it is known as a â€Å"trait†. Someone who has low self-esteem as a trait is considered to be worse off than a person who is in a state of low self-esteem. Low self esteem is though to have several side affects, both mental and physical which inevitably affect the self-presentation of a person. Low self esteem can lead onto other ailments of negativity such as: anxiety and depression. Once low self-esteem sets into a person it triggers off a self-defeating cycle in which negative expectations impair performance, which in turn reinforces low self-esteem. This cycle is known as: â€Å"The Vicious Cycle of Low Self-Esteem† (Brehm, 1999). On the contrary from people with low self-esteem, people with high self-esteem tend to have a much better quality of life and are happier within themselves, healthier, more productive and successful which all reflects on their self-presentation: â€Å"People high in self-esteem are confident and bring to new challenges a winning and motivating attitude. In contrast, people low in self-esteem lack confidence and bring to new tasks a losing attitude that traps them in a vicious, self def... ... role of a job candidate. In the third experiment, students instructed to be self-enhancing in an interview subsequently showed elevated self-esteem (unless their interview behaviour was prescribed by the experimenter and thus not self-referring). Students who were instructed to be self-deprecating subsequently showed lowered self-esteem if they had been given a clear choice as to whether to engage in the interview. It was concluded that self-perception theory can account for self-enhancing carry-over, whereas dissonance theory offers a more appropriate explanation for the carry-over or internalisation of self-deprecating actions. If the question were to be asked if self-esteem and self-presentation were related, then the answer to that question would undoubtedly be yes. It is interesting to explore the avenues down which the two go hand in hand, as there are many aspects of human behaviour which could be as a result of self-esteem. It is something that determines the quality of life for human-beings. One’s self-presentation is undoubtedly something that reflects, to the outside world, someone’s inner most feelings, be they happiness and contention or sadness and despair.

Overcrowding in America’s Prisons Essay

Abstract America’s prison system has become extremely overcrowded and managing it has become a job of staggering proportions. In 2001, there were 1.4 million men and women incarcerated in state and federal correctional institutions. This overcrowding has increased the cost to operate prisons at alarming rates. Due to a high recidivism rate, many experts believe that lack of rehabilitation has played a great role in this increase. One of the major reasons that prisons have become overcrowded is that crime control strategies and legislative changes have favored longer sentences. These approaches have taken several forms that, when combined, have incarcerated people for longer periods of time with less possibility for early release. Many factors such as new offenses, mandatory sentences, lengthening terms, and habitual offender laws, have added to prison overcrowding. Although an exact cost can not be associated with overcrowding, we can look at present costs incurred in prison and anticipate their increase as the system takes on more and more inmates. When looking at the cost of overcrowding, we not only have to look at the cost to taxpayers per inmate but also construction cost needed to build the new prisons to relieve the overcrowding. The operating cost for a prison over its life span cost about fifteen to twenty times the original construction cost. Overcrowding causes serious depravation in the quality of life for everyone in a correctional institution. Overcrowding may cause a number of problems such as emotional stress, increase in disciplinary infractions, and some physical health problems. Overcrowding also causes litigation forcing the federal and state prisons to build new facilities to relieve overcrowding. Rehabilitation has been around for many years and throughout those years the chance to study models good and bad have given us much research to work with in knowing which rehabilitation models work and which do not. Rehabilitation programs should change or modify the offender or help them to modify themselves, as well as changing or modifying life circumstances and social  opportunities. Some types of rehabilitation programs in use are mental health and counseling programs, educational programs, and substance abuse programs. The results of many studies are statistically aggregated and assessed as one sample an their findings showed that effective programs reduced the reentry rate by approximately 36.4 percent in 1998. Generally 25 to 35 percent of the experimental treatment programs studied achieved favorable results. With statistics like these, I feel we can reduce the number of repeat offenders through the use of effective rehabilitation programs. Overcrowding in America’s Prisons Can rehabilitation help lower the growing numbers of repeat offenders? With overcrowding, managing America’s prisons has become a job of staggering proportions. As of December 31, 2001. Over 1.4 million men and women were incarcerated in state and federal correctional institutions. Operating cost of U.S. prisons rose 224 percent between 1980 and 1994. The Federal Bureau of Prisons estimates that operating costs could grow $4.7 billion by 2006. Many factors have led tot this increase such as mandatory sentencing and recidivism of offenders. Many in the field believe that lack of rehabilitation training geared toward marketable skills, along with no treatment of substance abuse, have played a great role in this increase. One of the major reasons that prisons have become overcrowded is crime control strategies and legislative changes have favored longer sentences. These approaches have taken several forms that, when combined, have incarcerated more people for longer periods of time with less possibility for early release. There was a 22 percent increase in arrests from 1986 to 1997. Overcrowding has also created a problem with understaffing in the â€Å"job rich 1990’s†. However, as the crime rate increases and people become more frightened, the politician’s answer with â€Å"tougher sentencing legislation† and not rehabilitation. The desire to reform convicted offenders has a long history in policy and practice in the American correctional system. As early as the eighteenth century to the present, politicians, correctional professionals, religious leaders, scholars and prison inmates themselves have participated in an ongoing reform movement and experiments all designed to rehabilitate lawbreakers, towards being law-abiding, self supporting individuals. What I will look at in this paper is the overcrowding in today’s prison and some of the causes and costs of this overcrowding. I will define rehabilitation and what is has meant throughout history while exploring what options are available in today’s prisons and the effectiveness of those options. In conclusion, I will show that if we refocus the system on rehabilitation and not merely the warehousing of criminals; we could reduce the number of repeat offenders and relieve some of the overcrowding in America’s prisons. Overcrowding in the American prison system is a growing problem that we must tackle. The growth rate of the prison population since midyear 2002 was 3.8 percent that is 7.6 percent annually. The tremendous increase in the prison population has resulted in continuous overcrowding the last two decades. Neither prison construction not the availability of bed space to accommodate the growing prison population has kept pace. As state above, changes in sentencing legislation and crime control have played a major role in prison overcrowding. This is obvious because of the number of commitments to prison has grown disproportionately greater than increases in population, the number of crimes and the number of arrests or the number of convictions. To better understand how these changes have played such a major role in overcrowding we must look at changes that have occurred in most states. One change is the creation of many new offenses that can result in prison terms or the revocation of probation or parole, sending offenders from the community back to prison. Some examples would be the newly created laws against stalking, as well as laws that make it a felony to intentionally transmit Aids. There have also been new rulings regarding penalties that now make prison terms mandatory for some offenses not previously associated with incarceration, such as DWI or DUI and certain drug convictions. Judges can no longer use discretion in deciding which punishment the offender should receive. A finding of guilty mean that incarceration for a set term is automatic. These same laws prohibit probation for certain offenders. An example is in California, legislation has restricted or eliminated the possibility of probation for arson, specific sex offenses, not limited to child molestation and residential burglary. Most states have lengthened prison terms associated with some convictions, particularly if certain weapons (aggravated crimes), or types of victims (children, elderly, handicapped) were involved, or if certain quantitative amounts of drugs were present. These â€Å"special circumstances† are said to enhance the seriousness of the crime. We have also seen many laws directed toward repeat offenders, with the passage of the habitual felon laws in which life sentences are possible for offenders convicted for a third time of a similar felony. Previously, only the maximum sentence allowed for that particular felony was permitted. The life sentence is a cumulative punishment for what the courts have called a â€Å"criminal career†. Many modifications and alterations were made for other sentences as well. For example, felons may be given sentences of life in prison without parole. Previously, all prisoners, after a designated time, became eligible for parole, regardless of whether or not they were actually granted the release. Many modifications of existing parole eligibility requirement force offenders to serve more time before becoming eligible for parole. Alterations to the â€Å"good time† statues have occurred letting prisoners accumulate less time for good behavior and thus taking longer to acquire credits toward parole eligibility or discharge of the sentence. Although exact cost associated with overcrowding cannot be determined, we can look at present expenses incurred by prison and anticipate the increases as  the system takes on more and more inmates. Currently, taxpayers spend between $30,000 to $50,000 per inmate per year to maintain the state and federal correctional systems. That includes the operating costs and the cost of new construction. Depending on the level of security and the geographic region of the United States, it can cost anywhere from $30,000 to $130,000 to build each new bed space. The cost range was around $56,000 in 1992. Four out of five capital outlay dollars in construction, however, go for building expenses other than the housing area itself. Construction costs are only the down payment of a prison’s total cost to society. The Federal Bureau of Prisons explains the operating cost for a prison over its practical life span at about fifteen to twenty times the original construction cost. Cost per inmate per day varies from state to state, and within each state from prison unit to prison unit. The units with greater security or larger amounts of medical and psychiatric treatment services will, of course, be more expensive to build and operate. Personnel is the major operating expense, usually accounting for an average of 75 percent of an agency’s total operating budget. The results of overcrowding are serious deprivation in the quality of life for everyone in a correctional institution. Even though we have build hundreds of new prisons and expanded facilities in the last ten years, the average amount of space per inmate has decreased over 10 percent. Stretching resources beyond their capacity is something the courts watch carefully when monitoring prison conditions. Overcrowding may be measured in shortages of basic necessities, such as space, sheets, hot water, clothing and food. Vocational, educational, and recreational programs may become seriously overloaded. Medical services and supplies may be insufficient, thereby posing health risks. Throughout the total system, high inmate to staff ratios lead to poor supervision and scheduling difficulties, which result in less inmate activity and greater safety risks for both the employee and the prisoner. The nature of a crowded environment itself may have serious effect on the health and well being of inmates. Noise and the lack of privacy associated with crowding may contribute to emotional stress and the development of mental health problems. Studies have shown that crowding may increase the number of disciplinary infractions per inmate. Inmates in densely populated units may suffer from higher blood pressure. It has also been concluded that, as density of the population increases, so does the rate of mortality in inmates over the age of forty-five (Paulus 1988). Common conditions such as the spreading of colds, sexually transmitted diseases, and other infectious diseases are increased in overcrowded areas. Many studies have claimed the rate of psychiatric commitments and suicides reveal increases for inmate in crowded living areas. Research has also linked higher subsequent rates of criminal behavior to inmates from institutions that were overcrowded. Increases in violence, particularly staff and inmate assaults, are associated with overcrowded conditions as well. It is argued that living too close together heightens tempers and aggression, leading most likely to confrontations. The nation’s courts are sentencing and admitting more offenders in America’s prisons than the facilities can hold. The Government Accounting Office reported for fiscal year 1992-1993, twenty-five state correctional systems requested funds for eighty-five new facilities that would add over fifty-six thousand new prison beds. Texas alone asked for $600 million to finance the construction of twenty-five thousand new beds. The American Correctional Association guidelines call for a standard cell area of sixty square feet for inmates spending no more than ten hours per day in their cell. In many prisons, inmates are double bunked in cells designed for one or sleep on mattresses in unheated prison gyms or on the floors of dayrooms, halls or basements. Some are housed in tents, other sleep in the same bunk different times of the day. Many taxpayers do not consider overcrowding a problem because they believe that discomfort should be a part of the punishment. Research has only recently begun to explore the effects of crowding beyond those on individual inmates, groups of inmates and the programs and services they receive. Information is still needed on the effect crowding has on the  staff, on the management strategies, on budgeting and government responses, on facility and equipment durability, and on the cost of operations under various strategies to reduce overcrowding. In 1996, nearly half (48.4 percent) of the respondents surveyed by the Survey Research Program (College of Criminal Justice, Sam Houston State University) thought that the most important goal of prison should be rehabilitation, while only 14.6 percent saw punishment as the most important goal of prison. One third thought that crime prevention/deterrence was the most important goal of prisons. Throughout most of American history correctional policy makers have positioned rehabilitation among the most important correctional goals. Treatment has appeared in many forms and clearly many ideas have proven ultimately to be unfounded. The earliest institutional treatment models, for example, place heavy reliance on the qualities of institutional life combined with spiritual contemplation as a source of individual reformation. The earliest penal facilities were founded under a Quaker influence supported either solitary confinement or a congregate model that imposed total silence upon its prisoners. It was assumed that in both systems would be isolated from the evil influences and subject to strong discipline. The outcome they believed would be a responsible citizen who had seen the error of their ways. More realistically, the practice of solitary confinement produced many instances of mental illness before its use was abandoned. Historians have referred to this period as a time in which harshness was too quickly assumed to be discipline, an abusive discipline that did more to breaks spirits rather than reform them. A more positive approach was introduced shortly after the Civil War and put into practice in 1876 at the Elmira Reformatory for youthful offenders in New York. That program used ideas that we recognize today a related to operant conditioning. Borrowing from earlier Australian reforms, know as the â€Å"mark†, system reformers planned a model in which inmates could earn transfers to less secure prisons and ultimately their release through good behavior and work performance. The reformatory system is known for the  contemporary introduction of the indeterminate sentence and post-release supervision or parole. This afforded the correctional professionals the opportunity to predicate a release decision based upon an inmate’s satisfactory rehabilitation. The Elmira Reformatory, and other built shortly after in other states, can be recognized for their educational and other programs designed to facilitate change instead of passively waiting for inmates to see the need for c hange. More intensive efforts appeared from 1900 to 1920, when progressive reformers seized upon the new clinical approaches offered by social and psychological sciences. The social wisdom of the day encouraged public education and the belief that social ills, including crime, could be prevented. Science, particularly social, medical and psychological sciences, also asserted that causes could be identified, diagnosed, and ultimately treated. The field of criminology during those years was characterized by the work of the positivists, researchers who found the roots of crime to be in biological traits and psychological ills, rather than in the rational choices made by offenders. The criminals, in other words, were ill. These progressive reformers sought to first diagnose the cause of crime and then treat them. They envisioned prisons like hospitals and diagnostic centers. Perhaps the greatest impact the progressive reformers had was in the development of a less adversarial and more rehabilitative ideology. While more treatment staff was later added, prisons did not become hospitals; maybe because public investment in treatment was never sufficiently achieved. Nevertheless, the goals of individualized treatment, classification, and community corrections, and substitution of humane, reform oriented programs of punishment dominated correctional policy throughout the first half of the twentieth century as rehabilitation enjoyed unchallenged status until mid-century as the correctional priority. Rehabilitation was also helped by two presidential crime commissions and resulting legislation that provided state and federal seed money for many new crime prevention and treatment initiatives. These promotions, however, were short lived. Conservatives were lamenting a high crime rate and asserting that deterrence and incapacitation, the â€Å"get tough† approaches to  crime, were more effective. In the mid 1970’s a review of the treatment evaluation literature by Robert Martinson (1974) concluded that rehabilitation had achieved â€Å"no appreciable effect on recidivism†. The Martinson report was indeed supportive of the subsequent swing to a far more conservative crime agenda. Over the next twenty years there was a move away from indeterminate sentencing toward determinate or presumptive sentencing models or guidelines. A drop in available money for new demonstration programs and cuts in many existing correctional treatment budgets only added to the conserva tive appeal. American prisons became frightfully overcrowded growing by 168 percent from 1980 to 1991 largely on the political promises to â€Å"get tough† on crime. However, correction agencies did not totally give up on rehabilitation. A growing drug problem required new strategies for dealing with drug and alcohol addictions. Treatment research and evaluation efforts continued and began to show more favorable results. While current use of treatment and rehabilitation technology is not what it should be in actual practice, most rehabilitation scholars conclude that a good deal has been learned over the past decades about specific strategies that work. Rehabilitation is synonymous with interventions or treatment. Sometimes rehabilitation might more accurately be called â€Å"habilitation†. â€Å"Habilitation†, in this sense refers to the offender whose behavior is the result of not having received the skills or personal qualities needed to live a life free from crime. The Palmer Model (1992) is a rehabilitation program model, which has shown favorable results. Whether speaking of rehabilitation, habilitation, intervention services, or treatment we are referring to distinct, correctional programs that a) change or modify the offender or help them modify themselves or b) change or modify life circumstances and improve social opportunities. Such methods should utilize, develop or redirect the powers and mechanisms of the individual’s mind and body in order to enhance the ability to cope and grow. Palmer excludes from his definition any correctional options that try to reduce, physically traumatize, disorganize or devastate the mind or body by means such as dismemberment or electroshock techniques. He includes measures that try to  affect the individual’s future behavior, attitudes toward self, and interactions with other by focusing on such factors and conditions as the individual’s adjustment techniques, interest, skills, personal limitations and/or life circumstances. Often correctional options are put forward as measures toward reducing future crime, while most options offer no real plan to change targeted criminal behavior. Halfway houses by themselves do not constitute treatment unless there is a treatment program in place. The distinction between treatment, control and custody may be a confusing one for policy makers and others, because one seldom hears of new correctional options put forward without some promise, to either solve the crime problem, or reform the offenders. Boot camps, for example, have been touted as short-term treatment programs for first time offenders, particularly drug offenders. But the military regimen has little basis in any treatment model, and often no interventions are specifically targeted to the drug problem. In the same fashion, intermediate sanctions such as intensive probation, house arrests, and electronic monitoring serve a custody and control function rather than one of treatment. There are many types of correctional rehabilitation programs. Rehabilitation may occur in mental health and substance abuse, educational or vocational programs. Some might also include spiritual programs, although there is very little research devoted to religious programs used for rehabilitation. Mental health programs comprise a wide array of strategies. In rare cases, an institution may provide in-depth psychotherapy for seriously troubled inmates. Such approaches would deal with internalized conflicts, anxieties, phobias, depression, uncontrollable anger, neurosis and other serious mental health problems. Many factors such as early abuse, trauma, abandonment or dysfunctional family like could cause these problems. Strategies known as â€Å"here and now† treatment models are however far more common approaches to treating or counseling prison inmates. As the names suggests â€Å"here and now† programs assist clients in dealing with  current issues in their lives, such as how poor attitudes might influence work performance. â€Å"Here and now† strategies include behavioral programs, social learning approaches and cognitive therapies. The â€Å"here and now† approach is preferred for a number of reasons. One is cost; much less the in-depth psychotherapy and does not require the use of highly skilled clinicians. Correctional personnel holding a bachelor’s or a master’s degree can be trained to use Reality Therapy and behavioral approaches. Also â€Å"here and now† strategies are more apt to deal with observable behavior that with the more abstract, subconscious processes that are the subject of psychoanalysis. Finally, â€Å"here and now† strategies work well in-group settings. In fact, most treatment approaches in the corrections area are group-counseling programs, necessitated by the large prison population and the limited resources. This is not necessarily a disadvantage, because group treatments offer more than just money savings. Group cohesiveness and peer influence can be vehicles for change in themselves. One other thing is group approaches afford an opportunity for social interaction that cannot take place in individual counseling situations. Education and competence of prison inmates speaks strongly of the need for prison educational programs. In 1984 a staggering forty-two percent of the incarcerated adult population functioned below a sixth grade academic level. Over half of the inmate population appears to lack basic reading skills. Many would qualify for special educational programs, especially those for the learning disabled. Even with these tragic statistics and the fact that academic and vocational education has long been identified as an important goal of correctional agencies and correctional professional organizations, the status of educational programs in American prisons is not a commendable one. Adult populations are largely under-served and program effectiveness is questionable. The most common programs in today’s prison are those that address academic deficiencies. Adult basic literacy programs or Adult Basic Education programs for example promote literacy and address the basic academic  deficiencies. Such programs can be self-paced and require the use of programmed materials rather than classroom instruction, thus are cost efficient by using outside volunteers and other inmates to facilitate instruction. General Education Diploma (GED) classes are available in most adult correctional settings. Participation in these programs for adults is usually voluntary and part time. Both the GED and the basic education programs are sometimes criticized for their failure to stress important like skills and competencies. GED for example is said to be a test-driven model used to certify rather than to educate. This criticism extends to other areas of prison education. Vocational education programs are faulted for their failure to teach inmates marketable job skills; those that would prepare inmates to enter the work force. Many of today’s fields have become much more technical in recent years, and the correctional agencies cannot afford to keep up. These advances and the machinery needed to train inmates in their applications is cost prohibited. Women’s programs are also criticized for emphasizing traditional women’s jobs, which usually equate to lower pay. Many of the women prisoners are single mothers with a real need for higher paying non-traditional jobs. Finally, careers that require licenses or apprenticeships are not well suited to prison, because prison terms are often too short to meet a typical apprenticeship period. By 1978, the federal prison system was operating thirty-three drug treatment units. Although many programs today have been severely limited by budget cuts, attempts have been made to involve not only those inmates under court order to receive treatment but also those who volunteer for treatment. Still, only eleven percent of federal inmates are involved in drug abuse programs. A survey of 277 prison facilities in 1991 determined that about one-third of all inmates participated in some type of drug treatment program. Most had been involved in-group counseling; others were in self-help programs, and some received in-patient services. In prison most common program formats are group therapy, self-help, and drug education programs. Education programs can be offered in short segments, and  reach large audiences for a lower cost. But these programs have been criticized for using scare tactics or for not acknowledging the realities that make drug use attractive to those with troubled lives. Drug education is most effective on a very young population who has not yet used drugs, and this profile does not describe most incarcerated offenders. One of the biggest criticisms of prison treatment programs is that they offer fewer services for shorter periods of time than those of outside programs. Outside programs are more likely to involve family and to provide follow up referral as well as components for instance as job counseling, education, and vocational training. When paroled, continued drug use many result in re-incarceration. In 1990 drug related parole violations in California accounted for thirty-two percent of returns to prison. Several studies have linked substance abuse treatment while incarcerated with later success on parole. Unfortunately many programs do not follow up on their participants to evaluate their success. Four programs that have had a relatively low rate of recidivism were reviewed in 1989. The shared characteristics included offering a wide range of activities, teaching practical life skills, using nontraditional correctional employees who were realistic about the program goals, and formal and informal follow up with participants after release. Spending more time in treatment also appeared to be related to lower arrest rates and successful completion of parole. Recent correctional history shows us that treatment endeavors can be toppled quickly by those who question their effectiveness. When these doubts are voiced in the context of an unfavorable political climate, the results can be devastating. Yet one favorable outcome of the discouraging setbacks to correctional rehabilitation has been approximately two decades of research designed to check the accuracy of the unfavorable reviews. Clearly the most valuable contribution to our knowledge in this area comes from the advent of meta-analyses, in which the results of many studies are statistically aggregated and assessed as one sample. Across these studies, findings typically show that effective programs reduced recidivism rates by  approximately twenty percent. Generally, 25 to 35 percent of the experimental treatment programs studied achieved positive results. The meta-analyses, along with several extensive reviews of the literature, also identify the treatments most likely to succeed. These include behavioral, cognitive behavioral, life skills, family intervention and some multi-modal approaches. The meta-analyses also show us that the treatment modality is only one of the factors that differentiate a successful intervention from an unsuccessful one. Programmatic characteristics also have an impact. These characteristics include: 1. Whether the program is well matched to its clients. 2. Dosage, or how much of an intervention is received. 3. Therapeutic integrity. 4. Administrative management style. 5. Provision of a relapse prevention component. 6. Whether the program was designed according to theoretical model. In an unfavorable, punishment-focused political climate, the relative success of rehabilitation appears to go unnoticed. Politicians quell the public’s fear of crime with promises of yet stricter incarceration policies, more police officers, and occasional digressions into the latest correctional fad. Sadly, the singular focus on punishment is not purely representative of public sentiment. While it is true that the public favors â€Å"get tough† policies, support for rehabilitation is also strong. A series of surveys conducted on the past decade show that indeed the public is punishment oriented, but, the surveys also clearly show the public experts treatment-oriented programs to accompany incarceration. In other words, â€Å"Get tough on crime† does not mean â€Å"to warehouse† or to ignore treatment and  education. As we continue in this new millennium we must make some important choices about what we want our prison system to be. It is clear to me that we can no longer sit back and continue to let our prisons mainly be â€Å"warehouses† for keeping those individuals whose problems we choose not to recognize or treat. The reduction in the recidivism rate by twenty percent when effective programs are used is reason enough for the American public to demand that rehabilitation become more of a focused priority to prison officials as well as politicians and also a priority with the politicians. We are incarcerating large numbers of people who actually have a disease, since most experts consider substance abuse a disease and not criminal behavior. Until we concentrate on curing the problems of society that cause most of these criminals to adopt behavior that they are being punished for, we will continue to see a rise in the numbers incarcerated. I believe rehabilitation can lower the number of repeat offenders if we are willing to redirect the focus of our prisons. It will not be easy and it will not be cheap; but it will be worth it for the good of society as a whole. Rehabilitation of criminals can be greatly improved, and the successful measurement documented by implementing a very old but successful scientific theory of â€Å"cause and effect†. Work Cited Begun, Abbey M. B.A. ed., Jacobs, M.A. ed., Quiram, Jacquelyn F. B.A. ed. Prisons and Jails a Deterrent to Crime? Information Plus 1999 ed. Davis, Bertha. Instead of Prison. New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Franklin Watts publishing 1986. Lacayo, Richard, â€Å"Law and Order, Crime rates are down across the U.S.-Some dramatically. Is this a blip or a Trend? With so many factors in play, it may be a bit of both. 15 January, 1996 Volume 147, No. 3 (http://www.time.com/time/mag/†¦e/1996/dom/960115/cover.html) McShane, Marilyn. D. ed., Williams III, Frank P. ed. Encyclopedia of American Prisons. New York and London, Garland Publishing,Inc., 1996 Menninger, Karl. The Crime of Punishment. New York, Viking Press, 1968 Oliver, Marilyn Tower. Prisons, Today’s Debate. New Jersey, Enslow Publishing, 1997 United States. Federal Bureau of Prisons. Inmate Programs and Services. (http://www,bop.gov) United States. Prison Statistics. Bureau of Justice Statistics Prison Statistics (http://www/ojp.usdoj-gov/bjs/prison.htm)

Principles of accounts Essay

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all the persons who have been helpful towards the successful completion of this assignment. First and foremost I would like to thank Shadae Russell, Shakeyra Millington, Jonathon Butler and Ovasha Bartley for their support and assistance towards carrying out the research to complete this assignment. Secondly I want to thank my guardians for providing me with the suitable materials to finalize this assignment. I would also like to thank Mrs. K. Elliot for her assistance and guidance in completing this project. Last but certainly not least I would like to thank God for his extended mercies unto me. Introduction This assignment is about a business that started approximately three (3) years ago which is situated in a busy area that allows it to generate large amounts of money each day to carry out its operations. This assignment contains all the information about this Blanna’s Fashion Boutique business. The information which this assignment contains includes the financial records for the period ending September 30 2011. This assignment serves to keep track of all the money that goes inside the business bank account, all the cash which the business uses within visiting the business bank account, all the money that goes outside of the business bank account, all the money that came into the business by cash and not with the use of cheques and the purposes for each transaction. Therefore this assignment provides a clear understand of all the operations the business under goes on a day to day basis. Table of Contents Headings Page # Cover Page I Title PageII AcknowledgementIII Introduction IV Aim of the Project1 Description of Business Entity 2 Mission Statement 3 Logo and Slogan 4 Accounting Cycle 5 Accounting Information Journals 6-7 Cash Book 8 Ledgers 9-13 Trial Balance 14 Stock Valuation 15-19 Trading, Profit and Loss and Appropriation A/c 20-21 Balance Sheet 22 Bank Reconciliation Statement 23 Accounting Ratios 24-25 Performance of the Business 26 Comparisons 27 Recommendations and Suggestions 28 Conclusion 29 Appendix Price list (showing mark up %) 30 Diagrams Charts and Graphs Pictures Invoices, Cheques, Receipts etc References Aim of the Project The aim of this project is: To arrive at a comprehensive understanding of the financial sector of businesses. To highlight the strength and the weaknesses of the Blanna’s Fashion Boutique business. To present the financial records for the year ended September 30, 2011 for Blanna’s Fashion Boutique business. Description of Business Entity Blanna’s Fashion Boutique is a partnership. This business is owned and operated by Anna Kay Blake, Shadae Russell and Ovasha Bartley a Group of ambitious young ladies. Our main aim is to make a profit while catering for the needs of the community which it is situated in. Blanna’s Fashion Boutique is situated in Montego Bay at the Blue diamond plaza 10 Pearl Street. This business has been in existence since June 20, 2008. We employ approximately fifteen (15) workers. We cater for the petite to the full figured women. We produce a wide variety of slippers, pants, skirts, handbags and accessories. Prices are always lower than that of our competitors. In cases of fashion emergencies you can call us at (1876) 3553980/4275646 or email us at Blanna’s_EmergencyStop5@yahoo. com. The mission of Blanna’s Fashion Boutique is to: Provide the latest fashion for all females Provide goods and services at a reasonable cost Ensure that the quality of our goods meets the standards of our business. Ensure that whatever the business do doesn’t affect the environment negatively. Provide employment for members of the community Provide sponsors to underprivileged children Logo and Slogan Logo Slogan With passion we send out the latest fashion Accounting Cycle General Journal Date Details Folio Debit Credit September 1 Bank CB01 364000 Cash CB01 27160 Debtor (J. Simpson) SL01 31600 Motor Van GL02 62840 Building GL03 100000 Stock 24960 Creditor (Super Supreme) PL01 10560 Capital GL01 600000 Opening entries 610560 610560 Purchase journalPage 01 Date Details Folio Amount 1-Sep Super Supreme International PL01 237,040 27-Sep Super Supreme International PL01 57,960 Sep 30 Total credit purchases to be transferred to the purchases account in the general ledger GL02 295,000 SALES JOURNAL Date Details Folio Amount 5-Sep J. Simpson SL01 57000 13-Sep B. Banton SL03 78,550 20-Sep N. Kidman SL02 104,400 Sep 30 Total credit sales to be transferred to the sales account in the general ledger GL13 239,950 RETURN OUTWARDS JOURNAL Date Details Folio Amount 9-Sep Super Supreme International PL01 13,600 Sep 30 Total return outwards to be transferred to the return outwards account in the general ledger GL16 13,600 Return Inwards Day Book Date Details Folio Amount 24-Sep B. Banton SL03 16,800 30-Sep N. Kidman SL02 9,600 Sep 30 Total goods returned to us to be transferred to the return inwards account in the general ledger GL15 26,400 Cash Book Date Details Folio Discount Allowed Cash Bank Date Details Folio Discount Received Cash Bank September 1 Balance b/d GJ01 27,160 364,000 September 1 Machinery GL3 48,000 September 2 Bank C 50,000 2 Cash C 50,000 3 Sales GL13 59,350 3 Rent GL4 30,000 7 Sales GL13 37,750 6 Fixtures GL5 65,000 18 J. Simpson SJ01 12,000 45,000 8 Wages GL12 10,000 29 B. Banton SJ03 6,175 55,575 11 Insurance GL6 6,100 30 Sales GL13 120,540 11 Electricity GL7 3,300 11 Rates GL8 2,600 15 Super Supreme International PL01 7,500 142,500 15 Wages GL12 10,000 16 Drawings GL10 6,200 19 Furniture GL11 3,600 22 Wages GL12 10,000 29 Wages GL12 10,000 30 Balance c/d 123,075 239,000 18,175 350,375 409,000 7,500 350,375 409,000 General Ledger Date Details Folio Amount Date Details Folio Amount Capital A/C Page 01 September 31 Balance c/d 600,000 September 1 Balance b/d GJ01 600,000 October 1 Balance b/d 600,000 Motor Van A/C Page 02 September 1 Balance b/d GJ12 62,840 September 30 Balance c/d 62,840 October 1 Balance b/d 62,840 Buildings A/C Page 03 September 1 Balance b/d GJ01 100,000 September 30 Balance c/d 100,000 October 1 Balance b/d 100,000 Machinery A/C September 1 Bank CB01 48,000 September 31 Balance c/d 48,000 October 1 Balance b/d 48,000 Rent A/C September 3 Bank CB01 30,000 September 30 Profit & Loss 30,000 Fixtures A/C September 6 Cash CB01 65,000 September 31 Balance c/d 65,000 October 1 Bal b/d 65,000 Insurance A/C September 11 Bank CB01 6,100 September 30 Profit & Loss 6,100 Electricity A/C September 11 Bank CB01 3,300 September 30 Profit & Loss 5,500 30 Accruals c/d 1,200 5,500 5,500 October 1 Accruals b/d 1200 Rates September 11 Bank CB01 2,600 September 30 Profit & Loss 2,600 Drawings September 16 Cash CB01 6,200 September 30 Balance c/d 6,200 September 30 Balance b/d 6,200 Furniture September 19 Cash CB01 3,600 September 30 Balance c/d 3,600 October 1 Balance b/d 3,600 Wages September 8 Bank C01 10,000 September 31 Profit & Loss 40,000 15 Cash C01 10,000 22 Bank C01 10,000 29 Bank C01 10,000 40,000 40,000 Sales September 30 Trading Account 457,590 September 3 Cash CB01 59,350 September 7 Cash CB01 37,750 September 30 Cash CB01 120,540 September 30 Total Credit Sales SJ01 239,950 457,590 457,590 Purchases September 31 Total Credit Purchases PJ01 295,000 September 31 Trading Account 295,000 Return Inwards September 31 Total for month RI01 26,400 September 31 Trading Account 26,400 Return Outwards September 31 Trading Account RO01 13,600 September 31 Total for month 13,600 Discount Allowed September 30 Total Discount Given to customers 18,175 September 30 P & L 18,175 Discount Received September 30 P & L 7,500 September 11 Super Supreme International 7,500 Purchases Ledger Super Supreme International September 9 Return Outwards RO01 13,600 September 1 Balance b/d GJ01 10,560 15 Bank CB01 142,500 1 Purchases PJ01 237,040 15 Discount Received CB01 7,500 27 Purchases PJ01 57,960 30 Balance c/d 141,960 305,560 305,560 October 1 Balance b/d 141,960 Sales Ledger J. Simpson September 1 Balance b/d 31,600 September 18 Discount Allowed CB01 12,000 September 5 Sales SJ01 57,000 September 18 Bank CB01 45000 September 30 Balance c/d 31,600 88,600 88,600 October 1 Balance b/d 31,600 N. Kidman September 20 Sales SJ01 104,400 September 30 Return Inwards RI01 9,600 September 30 Balance c/d 94,800 104,400 104,400 October 1 Balance b/d 94,800 B. Banton September 13 Sales SJ01 78,550 September 24 Return Inwards RI01 16,800 September 29 Discount Allowed CB01 6,175 29 Cash CB01 55,575 78,550 78,550 Trial Balance Blanna’s Fashion Boutique Trial Balance as at September 30, 2011 Details Debit $ Credit $ Capital 600,000 Motor Van Buildings 100,000 Machinery 48,000 Stock 24,960 Rent 30,000 Fixtures 65,000 Sales 457,590 Purchases 295,000 Cash 123,075 Bank 239,000 Wages 40,000 Return Outwards 13,600 Super Supreme International 141,960 Electricity 3,300 Insurance 6,100 Rates 2,600 Furniture 3,600 Drawings 6,200 Return Inwards 26,400 N. Kidman 94,800 J. Simpson 31,600 Discount Received 7,500 Discount Allowed 18,175 1,220,650 1,220,650 Stock Valuation (A) Pants Date Received Issued Balance Quantity Unit Price Amount Quantity Unit Price Amount Quantity Unit Price Amount 1-Sep 12 900 10,800 1-Sep 96 1,000 96,000 12 96 900 1,000 10,800 96,000 3-Sep 12 12 900 1,000 10,800 12,000 84 1,000 84,000 5-Sep 12 1,000 12,000 72 1,000 72,000 13-Sep 24 1,000 24,000 48 1,000 48,000 20-Sep 24 1,000 24,000 24 1,000 24,000 27-Sep 36 1,100 39,600 24 36 1,000 1,100 24,000 39,600 30-Sep 24 12 1,000 1,100 24,000 13,200 24 1,100 26,400 (B) Blouse Date Received Issued Balance Quantity Unit Price Amount Quantity Unit Price Amount Quantity Unit Price Amount 1-Sep 12 400 4,800 1-Sep 96 440 42,240 12 96 400 440 4,800 42,240 5-Sep 12 12 400 440 4,800 5,280 84 440 36,960 13-Sep 24 440 10,560 60 440 26,400 20-Sep 36 440 15,840 24 440 10,560 30-Sep 12 440 5,280 12 440 5,280 (C ) Handbag Date Received Issued Balance Quantity Unit Price Amount Quantity Unit Price Amount Quantity Unit Price Amount 1-Sep 4 1,600 6400 4 1,600 6,400 3-Sep 1 1,600 1,600 3 1,600 4,800 7-Sep 1 1,600 1,600 2 1,600 3,200 13-Sep 1 1,600 1,600 1 1,600 1,600 27-Sep 4 1,650 6,600 1 4 1,600 1,650 1,600 6,600 30-Sep 1 3 1,600 1,650 1,600 4,950 1 1,650 1,650 (D ) Skirts Date Received Issued Balance Quantity Unit Cost Amount Quantity Unit Cost Amount Quantity Unit Cost Amount 1-Sep 12 780 9,360 1-Sep 60 820 49,200 12 60 780 820 9,360 49,200 3-Sep 12 780 9,360 60 820 49,200 7-Sep 12 820 9,840 48 820 39,360 13-Sep 12 820 9,840 36 820 29,520 30-Sep 24 820 19,680 12 820 9,840 (E) Slipper Date Received Issued Balance Quantity Unit Price Amount Quantity Unit Price Amount Quantity Unit Price Amount 1-Sep 48 900 43,200 48 900 43,200 5-Sep 12 900 10,800 36 900 32,400 7-Sep 12 900 10,800 24 900 21,600 20-Sep 24 900 21,600 27-Sep 12 980 11,760 12 980 11,760 Trading, Profit and Loss and Appropriation Account Blanna’s Fashion Boutique Trading Profit & Loss Account for the year ended September 30, 2011 $ $ $ Sales 457,590 Less Return Inwards (26,400) Net Sales 431,190 Less Cost of Goods Sold: Opening Stock 24,960 Purchases 95,000 Less Return Outwards (13,600) Net Purchases 281,400 Cost of Goods Available 306,360 Less Closing Stock (54,930) 251,430 Gross Profit 179,760 Add Revenues Discount Received 7,500 187,260 Less Expenses Wages 40,000 Rent 30,000 Electricity 4,500 Insurance 5,100 Rates 2,600 Depreciation 400 Discount Allowed 18,175 100,775 86,485 Net Profit Add interest on Drawings: Shadae 620 Less: 85,865 Interest on capital Anna kay 12,500 Shadae 7500 Ovasha 10,000 30,000 Salary: Anna kay 12,000 42,000 43,865 Share of Profit: Anna kay 18,277. 08 Shadae 10966. 25 Ovasha14,621. 67 43,865 Balance Sheet Blanna’s Fashion Boutique Balance Sheet as at September 30, 2011 Fixed Assets Cost Accumulated Depreciation NBV Buildings 100000 100,000 Fixtures 65000 65,000 Machinery 48000 400 47,600 Furniture 3600 3,600 Motor Car 62840 62,840 400 279,040 Current Assets Stock 54,930 Debtors 126,400 Prepayment 1,000 Bank 239,000 Cash 123,075 544,405 Less Current Liabilities Creditors 141960 Accruals 1,200 143160 Working Capital 401,245 680,285 Financed by: Capital 600,000 Net Profit 86,485 686,485 Less Drawings 6,200 680,285 Bank Reconciliation Statement Updated Cash Book Balance b/d 239,000 Bank Charges 65 Credit Transfer 4200 Standing Order 15000 Balance c/d 228,135 243200 243200 Bank Reconciliation Statement as at September 30, 2011 Balance as per Bank Statement 222,535 Add Late Lodgments 45,000 267,535 Less Unpresented Cheque 39,400 Balance as per Cash Book 228,135 Accounting Ratios Inventory Turnover Ratio- Cost of Goods sold Average Inventory/2 =244,470 24960+61890/2 =5. 62 Current Ratio- Current assets Current Liabilities =551365 143160 =3. 85 Gross profit as a percentage of sales- Gross profit x 100 Sales =179,760 x 100 457590 = 39. 28% For every sale of $100 the business earns $39. 28 as gross profit. Net profit Ratio- Net profit / Net sales x l00 =86,485 / 431,190 x 100 =20. 06% For every sale of $100 the business earns $20. 06 as net profit. Acid Test Ratio- Current Assets- Stock Current liabilities = 544,405 – 54,930 143160 =3. 42 Performance of the Business In preparing the financial statements of Blanna’s Fashion Boutique the Trading, profit and loss and appropriation account shows a profit of eighty six thousand four hundred and eighty five thousand dollar (86,485) at the end of the financial period of September 30,2011. The business started out with six hundred thousand dollar. In the closing of the financial period of Blanna’s Fashion Boutique there was an increase in the amount of capital that the business has. The business made a gross profit of one hundred and seventy nine seven hundred and sixty dollars (179,760) instead of making a gross loss. Comparisons The comparison is being done between the opening capital and the closing capital for Blanna’s Fashion Boutique, at the end of the financial period. At the beginning of the financial year the opening capital was six hundred thousand dollar (600,000). At the end of the financial period the closing capital is six hundred and eighty thousand two hundred and eighty five dollar (680,285) which means there is an increase of eighty thousand two hundred and eighty five dollar (80,285). Another comparison is being done between the fixed assets of the business and the current assets. The fixed asset of the business is two hundred and seventy nine thousand and forty dollar (279,040) while the current asset is five hundred and forty four thousand four hundred and five dollars (544,405). This means that the amount of money that the business spend of items that stays in the business with no intention of selling it is lesser than the amount of money that the business spend on assets that will allow the business to generate a profit. Recommendations and Suggestions It is recommended that Blanna’s Fashion Boutique: Ploughed back a portion of the profit that the business makes into it. Introduces new products to the business. Purchase new equipment for the business Uses some of the profit that the business makes to attach another department on to the business. It is suggested that Blanna’s Fashion Boutique should: Purchase cheaper equipments to use in the business. This will increase the amount of money available in the business. Offer more sale discounts this will force more customers to purchase from Blanna’s Fashion Boutique. Conclusion It is clear that Blanna’s Fashion Boutique keeps all the records of the transactions that take place in the business over the financial period of time. Blanna’s Fashion Boutique could increase the gross profit and net profit of the business by adhering to the suggestions or recommendations outlined. Never the less Blanna’s Fashion Boutique made a good net profit of eighty six thousand four hundred and eighty five dollars (86,485) during the month of September in 2011. Blanna’s Fashion Boutique was able to make a profit due to the large amount of sales the business made. Price list Goods Price Pants $ Blouse $ Handbags $ Skirts $ Slippers $ INVOICE Debit note Principles of Accounts School Based Assessment (2012-2013) You are required to name the firm and state the nature of the business. This must be in accordance with the items sold*. After the initial accounting entries (Tasks 1 -3) have been completed you will then record the additional adjusting entries as set out at Tasks 4 and 5. You may choose goods from the following list for the transactions. * Computer Store Clothes and Accessories Store A Keyboard Pants (guess) B Mouse Blouse (guess) C Printer Hand bags (guess) D Surge Protector Skirts (guess) E Speakers Slippers (guess) ABC Enterprise (Remember that you are to rename the firm) The following transactions were taken from the books of ABC Enterprise. You are required to asses them carefully then write up the relevant books as outlined in the requirements below: 2011 Sept 1Opening Balances Capital$600, 000 Bank$364, 000 Cash$ 27, 160 Debtor (J Simpson)$ 31, 600 Creditor (Super Supreme International)$ 10, 560 Motor Van$ 62, 840 Building$100, 000 Stock 1doz A$ 10,800 1doz B $ 4,800 1doz D$ 9,360 Sept 1Bought goods on credit from Super Supreme International. 8 doz A @ $1,000 each 8 doz B @ $440 each 4 boxes C @ $1,600 each 5 doz D @ $820 each 4 doz E @ $900 each Sept 1Bought Machinery by cheque $48, 000. Sept 2Withdrew $50, 000 cash from the bank account to be used in the business. Sept 3Cash Sales 2 doz A @ $1, 650 each 1 box C @ $2, 950 each 1 doz D @ $1, 400 each Sept 3 Paid rent by cheque $30, 000. Sept 5 sold goods on credit to J. Simpson. 1 doz A @ $1, 650 each 2 doz B @ $800 each 1 doz E @ $1, 500 each Sept 6 Bought fixtures with cash $65, 000. Sept 7 Cash Sales 1 box C @ $2, 950 each 1 doz D @ $1, 400 each 1 doz E @ $1, 500 each Sept 8Paid wages $10, 000 by cheque. Sept 9Returned goods to Super Supreme International as items were damaged. 1 doz A 1 box C Sept 11Paid the following expenses by cheque: Insurance $6,100, Electricity $3,300 and Rates $2,600. Sept 13Sold goods on credit to B. Banton: 2 doz A @ $1, 650 each 2 doz B @ $ 800 each 1 box C @ $2, 950 each 1 doz D @ $1, 400 each Sept 15Made payment to Super Supreme International by cash $150, 000, received a 5% cash discount. Sept 15Paid wages with cash $10, 000 Sept 16Owner withdrew $6,200 cash to fix his personal motor car. Sept 18Collected Cheque from J. Simpson for goods sold on Sept 5th 2011, $45, 000. Sept 19Bought furniture $3,600 with cash from Courts Ja. Ltd. Sept 20Sold goods on credit to N. Kidman 2 doz A @ $1, 650 each 3 doz B @ $ 800 each 2 doz E @ $1, 500 each Sept 22Paid wages with cheque $10, 000. Sept 241 doz D returned to us by B. Banton as they were the wrong size. Sept 27Bought goods on credit from Super Supreme International. 3 doz A @ $ 1,100 each 4 boxes C @ $1, 650 each 1 doz E @ $ 980 each Sept 29B. Banton settled his account less 10% cash discount. He paid with cash. Sept 29 Paid wages $10,000 by cheque. Sept 30 Received goods from N. Kidman: 1 doz B Sept 30Cash Sales 3 doz A @ $1, 815 each 1 doz B @ $ 800 each 4 boxes C @ $3, 000 each 2 doz D @ $1, 400 each Task 1 Write up ALL Subsidiary Books and then post the transactions to the ledgers. Please ensure that you distinguish between, General Ledger, Sales Ledger and Purchases Ledger. Show the opening entries in the General Journal at September 1, 2011. Task 2 Prepare ABC Enterprise Trial Balance as at September 30, 2011 Task 3 Using the FIFO method of stock valuation, determine the closing stock. Task 4 Design a logo and slogan for your business and provide the relevant information on the business entity Prepare ABC Enterprise Trading, Profit and Loss Account for the month ending September 30, 2011 and a Balance Sheet as at that date, after taking into account the following: a) Insurance expense was paid in advance, $1000. b) Electricity was outstanding by $1, 200 c) Machinery is to be depreciated at 10 % annually using the straight line method (show the depreciation for the month). Show adjustment to the above information in the ledgers. Task 5 Prepare the Bank Reconciliation Statement using the Bank Statement below Bank Statement DR CR Balance $ $ $ Sept 1 Balance 364 000 Sept 1 Burke’s (Machinery) 48 000 316 000 Sept 2 SNPN Ltd (Cash) 50 000 266 000 Sept 8 Wages 10 000 256 000 Sept 11 NWC (Rates) 2 600 253 400 Sept 20 Wages 10 000 243 400 Sept 24 Credit transfer (Q Smith) 4 200 247 600 Sept 29 Wages

Ten tips for better sales proposals - Emphasis

Ten tips for better sales proposals Ten tips for better sales proposals Remember your prospect Dont get so carried away with what youre offering that you forget the person that youre trying to persuade. Always put the prospect first, by starting with their situation and the problems they need to solve. Remember other readers Are there other influencers and decision-makers who might read your proposal, and have you met them? If you havent, your proposal will be all they have to go on, so its vital that you address their needs too. Show understanding Impress your prospect by showing an understanding of their problems and how to fix them, rather than trying to dazzle them with how wonderful your company is. Your company facts and testimonials should just confirm that you know what youre talking about. Persuade You still need to sell the solution(s) youre proposing, so remember to write a persuasive sales argument dont just let the spec speak for itself. Check your facts Simple mistakes will seriously undermine even the best offering. One senior buyer of billion-pound contracts told Emphasis that he always circled the stupid mistakes first such as spelling product or place names incorrectly. Factual inaccuracies create a poor impression thats very hard to shift. Get the basics right Likewise, dont let your spelling, punctuation or grammar let you down. Basic errors do nothing to create a good impression. Dont waffle You may be very proud of your proposal, but your prospect probably has several others to read alongside yours. Even if they dont, theyll certainly have a backlog of other documents to read through. In a recent Emphasis survey, some buyers said that 90 per cent of what they read was badly written or hard to follow. So write to express, rather than to impress them with your splendid vocabulary. Cut and paste with care Cutting and pasting can be a good short cut if two proposals share common material. But its also fraught with danger. One Emphasis client told us of how theyd forgotten to take out a rival clients company name when they did this. It sounds obvious, but its easily done. The answer is to get someone else to proofread what youve written, as youll miss many of your own mistakes. Remember: love is blind. Take care with layout No matter how persuasive your argument, presentation is key and a poor layout can still let you down. Keep your layout uncluttered, crisp and professional. Use plenty of white space, and resist the temptation to cram too much information into every page. Less is definitely more. Talk them through it Finally, if you want to win, take it in. Make an appointment to talk your prospect through your proposal if at all possible. That way youll be able to handle any objections there and then, and maximise your chance of a successful close.

Emily Dickinsons Death Poems Essays - American Christians

Emily Dickinson's Death Poems Essays - American Christians Emily Dickinson's Death Poems Emily Dickinson's world was her father's home and garden in a small New England town. She lived most of her life within this private world. Her romantic visions and emotional intensity kept her from making all but a few friends. Because of this life of solitude, she was able to focus on her world more sharply than other authors of her time were. Her poems, carefully tied in packets, were discovered only after she had died. They reveal an unusual awareness of herself and her world, a shy but determined mind. Every poem was like a tiny micro-chasm that testified to Dickinson's life as a recluse. Dickinson's lack of rhyme and regular meter and her use of ellipsis and compression were unimportant as long as her poetry was encouraged by it. Although some find her poetry to be incomprehensible, illiterate, and uneducated, most find that her irregular poetic form are her original attempts at liberating American poetry from a stale heritage. Her poetry was the precursor to the modern spirit with the influence of transcendentalism not puritanism. Her treatment of Death and profound metaphysical tendencies were part of the singular nature of her genius. Emily's simple language draws rich meanings from common words. The imagery and metaphors in her poetry are taken from her observations of nature and her imagination. She approached her poetry inductively, combining words to arrive at a conclusion the pattern of words suggested, rather than starting with a specific theme or message. Her use of certain words resulted in one not being able to grasp her poetry with only one reading. She paid minute attention to things that nobody else noticed in the universe. She was obsessed with death and its consequences especially the idea of eternity. She once said, Does not Eternity appear dreadful to you I often get thinking of it and it seems so dark to me that I almost wish there was no Eternity. To think that we must forever live and never cease to be. It seems as if death which all so dread because it launches us upon an unknown world would be a relief to so endless a state of existence. Dickinson heavily believed that it was important to retain the power of consciousness after life. The question of mental cessation at death was an overtone of many of her poems. The imminent contingency of death, as the ul timate source of awe, wonder, and endless questions, was life's most fascinating feature to Dickinson. Dickinson challenges the mysteries of death with evasion, despair, curiosity or hope in her poetry as means to clarify her curiosity. From examining her poems of natural transitions of life and death, changing states of consciousness, as a speaker from beyond the grave, confronting death in a journey or dream and on the dividing line of life and death one can see that Dickinson points to death as the final inevitable change. The intensity of Dickinson's curiosity about dying and her enthusiasm to learn of the dying persons' experience at the point of mortality is evident in her poetry. She studies the effect of the deads' disappearance, on the living world, in a hope to conjecture something about the new life they are experiencing after death. Dickinson believes that a dying person's consciousness does not die with the body at death but rather it lives on and intensifies. In To know just how He suffered-would be dear To know just how He suffered would be dear To know if any Human eyes were near To whom He could entrust His wavering gaze Until it settle broad on Paradise To know if He was patient part content Was Dying as He thought or different Was it a pleasant Day to die And did the Sunshine face his way What was His furthest mind Of Home or God Or what the Distant say At news that He ceased Human Nature Such a Day And Wishes Had He Any Just His Sigh Accented Had been legible to Me And was He Confident until Ill fluttered out in Everlasting Well And if He spoke What name was Best What last What One broke

Composite Columns From Roman Architecture

Composite Columns From Roman Architecture In architecture, the Composite column is a Roman-designed column style that combines characteristics of the ancient Greek-era Ionic and the Corinthian columns. Composite columns have highly decorated capitals (tops). Typical of the Corinthian capital, the floral ornamentation of the Composite capital is styled after the acanthus leaf. The leaf decoration elements of the Corinthian style combine with the scroll designs (volute) that characterize the Ionic style. The Composite is considered one of the five orders of classical architecture. Fast Facts: Composite Columns A composite is by definition a combination of elements.Composite columns can describe column design or materials.A Roman Composite column combines the designs of the Greek Ionic and Corinthian columns.The capital top of a Roman Composite column has scrolls (volutes) and leaf decorations.Since the Renaissance, Composite column designs have been used in decorative pilasters.Composite columns were originally made of stone, but today a composite can be a mixture of synthetic materials. Classical architecture, including columns, refers to what builders designed in ancient Greece and Roman. A column consists of a base, a shaft, and a capital at the top of a shaft. In ancient times, the capital and the entablature above it were paired with distinctive characteristics that make up what became known as the classical orders of architecture. Size and proportion of each column type was standardized, although today, most people identify column types solely by their capital design. Documenting the types of ancient columns was advanced by Renaissance-era architects like Palladio and Vignloa. In fact, the word composite meaning a combination or compound of different elements was not generally used until the Renaissance in the 15th century. In American English, pronounce composite with the accent on the second syllable - kum-POS-it. In British English, the first syllable is more often accented. The Arch of Titus (Arco di Tito), c. 81 B.C. Andrea Jemolo Mondadori Portfolio/Getty Images (cropped) The Arch of Titus from the 1st century may be the first instance of the Roman composite column. Triumphal arches such as this one celebrated military victories and heroic conquerors - Titus and his Roman army returned to Rome after sacking Jerusalem and destroying the Second Temple in the year 70. World history is filled with military triumphs in one community that are sorrowful defeats in another - while the arch Titus marched beneath still stands in Rome, a more somber remembrance is observed in the Jewish religion on Tisha BAv. The Roman-type of columns can be found in the architecture of any of the regions influenced by the Roman Empire. Egyptian and Perian columns are often composites of Western and Eastern traditions. Composite columns can be found throughout the Middle East, most notably in Petra in Jordan. Bab el Siq Treasury (Al Khazneh), 1st Century, Petra, Jordan. Luca Mozzati Mondadori/Getty Images (cropped) Roman architect Marcus Vitruvius died before he could document the style of what is known as the Composite column - perhaps he would have dismissed this Roman combo column. The European architects of the Renaissance, however, noticed the beauty and practicality of this Roman design and incorporated it in many of their buildings during the 16th century. The well-known architect Andrea Palladio used Composite columns in many of his designs, including in the facade of the island Church of San Giorgio Maggiore in Venice, Italy. Church of San Giorgio Maggiore, 1610, Venice, Italy, Architect Andrea Palladio. Nicola De Pasquale/Getty Images (cropped) The influential Italian Renaissance architect Giacomo da Vignola incorporated Composite designs in the pilasters that adorn his work, including the 16th century Palazzo dei Banchi in Bologna, Italy. Composite designs, being a later invention within the Classical Orders, were often more decorative than structural - pilasters and engaged columns (round columns protruding like a pilaster) provide the essence of Classical design without being full columns. French Renaissance architect Pierre Lescot chose Composite pilasters in his designs for the Louvre in Paris and the 1550 Fontaine des Innocents. Lescot and sculptor Jean Goujon brought Renaissance Classicism to France. Fontaine des Innocents, 1550, Paris, France, Architect Pierre Lescot. Frà ©dà ©ric Soltan/Corbis via Getty Images (cropped) Because the combination (or composite) of the two Greek designs makes the Composite column more ornate than other columns, Composite columns are sometimes found in lavish 17th-century Baroque architecture. Pilasters were often used to ornament interiors, a decoration that provided classic, regal decoration to a room - even aboard a ship. A 19th century carved wooden Composite capital was found in the cabin of a Spanish Navy vessel captured by the U.S. Navy during the Spanish-American War. In contemporary architecture, the term composite column can be used to describe any style column molded from a man-made composite material such as fiberglass or a polymer resin, sometimes reinforced with metal. Significance of the Composite Order Its not the first type of column in Greek and Roman architecture, so what is the significance of the Composite Order? The earlier Ionic Order has an inherent design problem - how do you round the design of the rectangular volute capitals to elegantly fit on the top of a round shaft? The flowery asymmetrical Corinthian Order does the job. By combining both orders, the Composite column is visually more appealing while keeping the strength found in the Ionic Order. The significance of the Composite Order is that in its creation ancient architect-designers were modernizing architecture. Even today, architecture is an iterative process, that good ideas are brought together to form better ideas - or at least something new and different. Design is not pure in architecture. Design builds on itself by combination and elimination. It could be said that architecture itself is a composite.